Ibn Manẓūr

This article examines the riḥla (Arabic travelogue) as a literary genre from the early modern Mashreq through the Nahḍa period, proposing a formal definition that accounts for the genre’s diversity across several centuries. While riḥla literature emerged in the west of the Arab World in the twelfth century, comparable narratives did not appear in the Mashreq until the fifteenth century, resulting in a remarkably varied corpus. The study draws on a selection of largely unedited texts spanning from 1481 to the early twentieth century, including works by Muslim and Christian authors whose travel writing developed along distinct confessional lines. The article proposes distinguishing between travel writing broadly conceived and travelogues specifically—texts centered around particular journeys with a narrative framework bounded by departure and return. This formal approach accommodates the genre’s topical and formal variegation, from terse pilgrimage itineraries to exuberant Sufi imagery, from career-motivated Istanbul journeys to encyclopedic displays of erudition. The analysis demonstrates how the riḥla evolved from early modern compilations emphasizing patronage, pilgrimage, and confessional identity to Nahḍa-era texts focusing on comparative observation and social reform. This morphological approach invites further exploration of the genre’s stylistic diversity and its social underpinnings.

This entry explores the different meanings of taḍmīn in the Arabic sciences, namely, in grammar (naḥw), prosody (ʿarūḍ), and eloquence (balāgha), especially in the science of poetic devices (ʿilm al-badīʿ). It suggests a tripartite schema for taḍmīn in these three sciences, all of which, nonetheless, relate to the lexical meaning of taḍmīn as “inclusion”: taḍmīn as implication, taḍmīn as enjambment, and taḍmīn as quotation, respectively. After outlining these three kinds of taḍmīn, it explores in some detail the aesthetic purchase of taḍmīn as quotation, as discussed by theorists and critics of poetry.

The term waḍʿ (from waḍaʿa, “to put down”) is central to Arabic language theory and legal theory. Used in the Qur’an to denote the “proper place” of a word (Q 4:46, 5:13, 41), waḍʿ evolved into a foundational concept in semantics, pragmatics, and jurisprudence. This article traces its historical and conceptual evolution, beginning with the fourth/tenth-century philosophical debate over the origin of language. Scholars such as Ibn Jinnī and Ibn Fāris contested whether language arose from divine revelation (tawqīf) or human convention (iṣṭilāḥ). While Ibn Fāris championed the divine origin, citing pre-Islamic Bedouin speech (kalām al-ʿarab) as authoritative evidence, Ibn Jinnī ultimately deemed the question unresolved (waqf), reflecting a pragmatic approach. In uṣūl al-fiqh (principles of Islamic jurisprudence), waḍʿ became a productive epistemological category, used to distinguish between literal (ḥaqīqa) and figurative (majāz) meaning. Abū l-Ḥusayn al-Baṣrī and Imām al-Ḥaramayn al-Juwaynī employed waḍʿ to analyze how words are originally established through agreement, contrasting this with later metaphorical extensions. The distinction between dalīl waḍʿī (evidence based on convention) and dalīl ʿaqlī (evidence based on reason), articulated by Abū Bakr al-Bāqillānī, became pivotal: the Qur’an’s authority rests not on logical deduction but on the collective agreement (muwāḍaʿat ahlihi) on the meaning of its signs. The article highlights how waḍʿ transformed from a philosophical question into a discipline:ʿilm al-waḍʿ. Centered on ʿAḍud al-Dīn al-Ījī’s al-Risāla al-waḍʿiyya (eighth/fourteenth century), this field developed a sophisticated taxonomy of linguistic signification. Later scholars like al-Sharīf al-Jurjānī and ʿAlī al-Qushjī systematized its categories, laying the groundwork for a formal science of language. Ultimately, waḍʿ reshaped the self-understanding of ʿilm al-lugha, which came to include not merely the lexical heritage (matn al-lugha) but the “discipline of the individual coinage of single words”, thus integrating the terminology of waḍʿ into the core of Arabic language scholarship.